Learning is a process that goes far beyond mere memorization. It involves encoding, consolidating, retrieving, and reconsolidating knowledge. These steps form the foundation of long-term retention. Psychologists Elizabeth and Robert Bjork coined the term "desirable difficulties" to describe how short-term challenges that slow down learning can actually strengthen it in the long run (Brown et al., 2014, pp. 68-69). In this post, we explore key concepts such as encoding, retrieval, and reconsolidation, as well as the real-world examples that illustrate how learning occurs through difficulty.
Mia Blundetto: Learning Through Desirable Difficulties
Mia Blundetto, a Marine Corps officer, faced an aversion to falling, yet her job required her to jump out of planes. Her jump school training at Fort Benning became a prime example of desirable difficulties. The training gradually increased in difficulty—from practicing parachute landings on small platforms to full airplane jumps. The increased complexity of these tasks forced Mia to work through discomfort, ultimately resulting in her mastering the skill. Desirable difficulties like these—spacing, interleaving, and mixing practice—lead to more durable learning because they engage deeper cognitive processes (Brown et al., 2014, pp. 67-72).
Desirable Difficulties and How Learning Occurs
To understand how these challenges strengthen learning, it’s important to explore how learning occurs. First, there is encoding, the process by which the brain converts sensory perceptions into mental representations known as memory traces. For example, when Mia first learned how to do a parachute landing fall (PLF), her brain created a memory trace of the process (Brown et al., 2014, p. 72).
Next comes consolidation, the process that strengthens these mental representations for long-term memory. This step is vital because newly learned information is labile—easily altered—until it is reorganized and stabilized in the brain. Mia’s prior athletic experiences helped her connect new knowledge to her existing skills, a critical part of the consolidation process (Brown et al., 2014, pp. 73-75).
The Role of Retrieval and Updating Retrieval Cues
Retrieval plays a significant role in learning. Being able to recall what you've learned when needed is critical to long-term memory. Retrieval practice, such as Mia repeatedly performing parachute landing falls, strengthens learning by engaging and reinforcing memory traces. Over time, this also updates retrieval cues, helping learners apply their knowledge in different situations. The story of Jack and Jill illustrates how retrieval works—old associations (like “Jack and Jill”) can interfere with new ones (like “Jack and Jenny”), and updating retrieval cues helps navigate these competing memories (Brown et al., 2014, pp. 76-79).
The Inverse Relationship Between Ease of Retrieval and the Power of Practice
Interestingly, psychologists have uncovered an inverse relationship between ease of retrieval and the strength of learning. The easier a skill is to retrieve, the less powerful the practice. Conversely, the more effort you expend during retrieval, the stronger the entrenchment of that knowledge. This principle was tested with the Cal Poly baseball team. Players who practiced hitting random types of pitches—rather than practicing the same pitch repeatedly—showed greater improvement over time. This type of spaced, interleaved practice made their learning more robust and enduring (Brown et al., 2014, pp. 79-82).
Reconsolidation: Strengthening Through Effortful Recall
After initial retrieval, reconsolidation occurs. When learners are required to recall information after a gap, they often struggle at first, but this effort is what solidifies learning. Effortful recall helps “reload” the skill or knowledge, allowing learners to refine their mental representations and strengthen connections to prior knowledge (Brown et al., 2014, p. 82).
Building Mental Models and Broadening Mastery
Through repeated practice and effortful recall, learners create mental models—complex sets of knowledge and skills that become automatic. These mental models allow learners to apply their learning in different contexts. In Mia’s case, her extensive jump training created mental models that enabled her to handle unexpected situations calmly, like when she had to "swim out" of another jumper’s parachute midair (Brown et al., 2014, pp. 83-84).
Broadening mastery through varied practice, whether it’s in sports, academics, or professional skills, strengthens learning by forming networks of interconnected knowledge. This approach allows learners to apply their skills across a range of situations (Brown et al., 2014, p. 83).
Fostering Conceptual Learning and Improving Versatility
Desirable difficulties don’t just help with physical skills—they also enhance conceptual learning. When learners are exposed to different but related examples, it strengthens their ability to make distinctions and form deeper understanding. Interleaving practice, for example, enhances learners' discrimination skills, helping them distinguish between different concepts while improving their overall versatility (Brown et al., 2014, pp. 84-86).
Priming the Mind for Learning: Struggle Leads to Mastery
Priming the mind for learning through struggle has significant benefits. When learners attempt to solve a problem before being shown the solution, they tend to remember and understand it better than if they were simply given the answer upfront. This process taps into the same mental processes needed in real-world applications (Brown et al., 2014, p. 86).
Failure and the Myth of Errorless Learning: The B.F. Skinner Example
In the 1950s and 1960s, psychologist B.F. Skinner advocated for errorless learning, where students were spoon-fed small bits of information to avoid making mistakes. However, this method is now understood to be flawed. Mistakes and errors, when followed by corrective feedback, are integral to strengthening learning. Struggling and making errors builds resilience and a willingness to tackle difficult challenges, ultimately leading to mastery (Brown et al., 2014, pp. 90-94).
In conclusion, Chapter Four of Make It Stick highlights the counterintuitive yet powerful concept of "desirable difficulties" and their critical role in enhancing learning. By embracing challenges that initially slow down the learning process—such as spacing, interleaving, and retrieval practice—learners can strengthen their mental representations and build durable knowledge. Mia Blundetto's experiences in jump school serve as a vivid example of how these difficulties foster long-term retention and skill mastery. Whether in academics, athletics, or professional training, the effort required to work through discomfort and challenge is precisely what cements learning, broadens mastery, and primes the brain for future problem-solving. Ultimately, the struggle is not a barrier to learning—it is the path to mastering complex skills and concepts.
Eckert Centre is staffed with educational psychologists in Calgary, Alberta who specialize in teaching students of all ages the science of learning. Academic coaching services can support students of all ages to make what they are learning stick!
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Madison is a Psychology Assistant & Digital Marketing Assistant at Eckert Centre. She's currently deepening her understanding of psychology at the University of British Columbia. Madison brings her passion for mental health to our community through her writing. As our blogger in residence, her contributions offer a fresh perspective and shed light on the importance of mental wellbeing and school psychology. We are grateful for her eloquent words and the insights she shares on her journey towards cultivating a "Wise Self."
Works Cited
Brown, Peter C., Henry L. Roediger III, and Mark A. McDaniel. Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2014.
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